Airline Crew Members Fatigue and Rest Requirements

On February 12, 2009, Continental Express flight 3407, operated by Colgan Air, crashed near Buffalo, NY. The US Nation Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigations concluded that pilots did not perform basic procedures to recover from a stalled condition. Additionally, the NTSB determined that fatigue played a significant role in the accident. The Captain and First Officer did not have adequate rest the night before the accident (Wald, 2009). To prevent future accidents, the legislation regarding fatigue and crew requirements changed.

 

Unfortunately, most regulations are “written on blood,” meaning they become law after an accident; this is not the exception. Congress passed the Airline Safety and FAA Extension Act of 2010 after the Colgan flight 3407 accident. In 2014, the FAA implemented new minimum rest requirements for airline crew members (Trejos, 2014). This new regulation set a maximum amount of hours a crew member could be on duty and flight per day. Additionally, airlines must have a risk management program and must be reviewed by crew members every often. 

Air Line Pilot Association. (2019). PART 117—FLIGHT DUTY PERIOD: UNAUGMENTED OPERATIONS 

Air Line Pilot Association. (2019). PART 117—Maximum Flight Time: UNAUGMENTED OPERATIONS 

The 14 CFR Part 117 allows pilots to report fatigue to the airline without repercussions. The goal is to have no fatigue pilots flying. However, there is room for improvement. At this time, this regulation does not apply to cargo and private charter pilots. This new legislation helped increase safety in the aviation industry in the US.

References:

Air Line Pilot Association. (2019).  PART 117—FLIGHT DUTY PERIOD: UNAUGMENTED OPERATIONS [Table]. GUIDE TO PART 117 FLIGHT-TIME LIMITATIONS AND REST REQUIREMENTS. https://www3.alpa.org/LinkClick.aspx fileticket=LuTU%2FiviaQE%3D&tabid=3335

Air Line Pilot Association. (2019). PART 117—MAXIMUM FLIGHT TIME: UNAUGMENTED OPERATIONS [Table]. GUIDE TO PART 117 FLIGHT-TIME LIMITATIONS AND REST REQUIREMENTS. https://www3.alpa.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=LuTU%2FiviaQE%3D&tabid=333

Trejos, N. U. T. (2014, January 3). USA TODAY. USATODAY. https://eu.usatoday.com/story/todayinthesky/2014/01/03/pilot-fatigue-mandatory-rest-new-faa-rules/4304417/

Wald, M. L. (2009, May 14). Pilots in Buffalo Crash Were Set Up for Fatigue, Officials Say at Hearing. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/14/nyregion/14pilot.html

The US Aviation Industry - The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978

The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978

The airline industry has been heavily regulated by the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) since 1938. Airlines had to request approval from the CAB to establish and modify routes, set fares, or change schedules (Siddiqui). All that regulation was no longer there after Congress approved the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978. The consequence of the legislation was seen right away, competition increased, airfare prices were more affordable, and passenger demand increased. (Smith, 2020). 

After deregulating the industry, airlines were able to expand the business. Southwest was limited to fly within Texas, after the deregulation, the airline expanded their business to different states and today they fly to international destinations. Nowadays, airlines have the freedom to adjust as the market changes.

Do you imagine how catastrophic it would have been if airlines had to request changes to their schedules to the FAA during the COVID-19 pandemic?

References:

Siddiqui, A. (n.d.). Deregulation and its consequences. https://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Commercial_Aviation/Dereg/Tran8.htm

Smith, F. L. (2020, June 16). Airline deregulation. https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/AirlineDeregulation.html

Thunderstorms

A thunderstorm is the weather hazard that should concern pilots the most because it represents different types of risks. For instance, near and inside a storm, you could encounter low-level wind shears, lighting, hail, icing, severe turbulence, and tornadoes. All those weather phenomena are hazardous for the aircraft and its occupants. For that reason, pilots must avoid thunderstorms at all times.

For a thunderstorm to develop, it is required three conditions moisture, unstable air, and lifting action. Storms form when warm air evaporates water (moisture) and raises (lifting action) because of its less density, disturbing the stability of the environment (unstable air).

Thunderstorms have three stages: the cumulus, mature, and the dissipating stage. Strong updrafts characterize the cumulus stage. Next, the storm takes about 15 minutes to reach the mature stage, where precipitation falls in the form of rain showers or hail, and turbulence is present around the thunderstorm. Updrafts and downdrafts are present. Finally, when liftin action slows down, and the wind changes the cell’s shape into an anvil form, the dissipating stage begins, just downdrafts are present.

References:

Federal Aviation Administration. (2016). AC-00-6B. Retrieved from: https://www.faa.gov/documentlibrary/media/advisory_circular/ac_00-6b.pdf

Federal Aviation Administration. (2016). Pilots handbook of aeronautical knowledge. Washington, D.C.

The FAA Class D airspace and the Ecuadorian (ICAO) ATZ

The control tower is in charge of the active runways and the airport’s surroundings inside the FAA Class D airspaces and the Ecuadorian (ICAO) Air Traffic Zones (ATZ). Both are controlled airspace, and two-way radio communication is required. Aircraft on the traffic pattern will be inside the Class D airspace and the ATZ. Therefore, pilots must be in contact with the tower control at all times.

The control tower of the Class D airspace is in complete charge of the traffic around the airport. That includes takeoffs and landings. Inside an ATZ in Ecuador, the control tower must have continued communication with approach control. That means the tower must ask the approach controller before giving a takeoff clearance. Additionally, Class D airspaces are designated for non-busy airports while the ATZs in Ecuador are around busy airports such as Quito and Guayaquil. Also, the VFR weather minimums between a Class D and an ATZ are different too. The weather minimums on the ATZ will vary on the airspace it is inside. 

The dimension of these airspaces is different. For instance, the FAA “Class D airspace extends upward from the surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL)” (FAA, 2020). It is essential to know that the ceiling and the dimension of this airspace (usually four nautical miles around the airport) could vary. For that reason, the pilots must refer to supplemental charts to verify the information. On the other hand, the ATZ in Ecuador differs as well. For example, Quito located at 7900ft; the ATZ extends from the surface up to 10500ft. The radius is 15 nautical miles from the center of the airport.

Sources:

Aeronautical Information Manual - AIM - Controlled Airspace. (2020, January 30). Retrieved        from             https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap3_section_2.htmlDi rection 

General de Aviation Civil - Ecuador. (n.d.). SEQM AD 2.1 INDICADOR LOCALIZACIÓN Y NOMBRE DEL AERÓDROMO. Retrieved from http://www.ais.aviacioncivil.gob.ec/ifis3/aip/AD 2   SEQM

HavKar. (n.d.). Icao airspace classification. Retrieved from   http://www.havkar.com/en/blog/view/airspace-classifications-and-the-air-traffic-            control-services/124

Air Pollution and Airport Operations

The majority of emissions produced at airports comes from airplanes. Although, according to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), “aircraft engines produce the same pollution as any other engine burning fuel” (n.d.). Also, “The ICAO databank provides a compilation of aircraft engine emission data measured at four thrust levels: 100% (takeoff), 85% (climb out),  30% (approach) and 7% (idle) of maximum thrust available for takeoff under normal operating conditions at ISA sea level static conditions” (authors, 2019). However, the problem is the time the aircraft consumes from starting the engines until takeoff. Furthermore, at busier airports, due to traffic congestion, airplanes spend more time idle. Consequently, air pollution increases at and in the vicinity of the airport. Also, it is essential to understand that this emission is not significant at higher altitudes.

A solution could be to increase airport efficiency by adding more runways and designate certain runways for takeoffs only and others for landings only. Also, add taxiways that go around runways rather than intersecting them. For instance, Atlanta Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport is designed this way. It is no doubt this configuration reduces the time spent on the ground.

Another solution could be to tax air carriers operating with older aircraft or prohibit the operation of those airplanes. On average, old planes consume 51% more fuel than new airplanes. Technology allowed engine manufacturers to produce high-bypass turbofan engines that consume less fuel and produce less noise pollution. However, this solution could bring other problems like an increase in airfares and consequently a lower demand.

References:

International Civil Aviation Organization. (n.d.). Aircraft Engine Emissions. Retrieved from https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/aircraft-engine-emissions.aspx

Rutherford, D., & Zeinali, M. (2009). Efficiency trends for new commercial jet aircraft 1960-2008.

Schlenker, W., & Walker, W. R. (2016). Airports, air pollution, and contemporaneous health. The Review of Economic Studies, 83(2 (295)), 768-809. doi:10.1093/restud/rdv043

 Visser, H., Hebly, S., & Wijnen, R. (2009). Management of the environmental impact at airport operations. New York: Nova Science Publishers.

The Air Commerce Act of 1926

During World War I, the military used airplanes to carry mail. After the war finished, there was a surplus of aircraft, and civilians used them to continue sending mail, this time in the US. However, many accidents happened, and for various reasons, some airplanes were not in the right conditions to fly, sometimes the weather was not suitable for flying but, the air carries would pressure the pilots to fly anyways.



The United States Congress passed the Air Commerce Act 94 years ago in 1926. Then, the Government will (FAA),  “designate and establish airways, establish, operate, and maintain aids to air navigation (but not airports), arrange for research and development to improve such aids, license pilots, issue airworthiness certificates for aircraft and major aircraft components, and investigate accidents.”

This event was necessary for the aviation industry since accidents were not frequent anymore, as it used to be before 1926. Further, the general public started to trust airplanes and later became a “common” public transportation method. Many air carriers took advantage of the trust and became larger airlines. Aviation would not be what it is today if this Air Commerce Act of 1926 never became law.

References:

A Brief History of the FAA. (2017, January 4). Retrieved from https://www.faa.gov/about/history/brief_history/

Air Commerce Act. (2015, December 7). Retrieved from https://www.transportation.gov/content/air-commerce-act

Glass, A. (2013, May 20). Congress passed Air Commerce Act, May 20, 1926. Retrieved from https://www.politico.com/story/2013/05/this-day-in-politics-091600

Human Factors and CRM.

Human factors are “issues affecting how people do their jobs” (Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA), 2020). Those issues are social and personal skills. The skills are required to maintain the operations running safely and efficiently (CASA, 2020). Therefore, those skills are essential in aviation. However, we need to understand that not just pilots need to have those skills, but everyone around the operations such as “air traffic controllers, management, maintenance, regulatory bodies and policymakers” (Stanton N. A., Li W. and Harris D, 2019).

For pilots, Crew Resource Management (CRM) is the correct use of resources available for the crew. The purpose of CRM is to increase operational efficiency by reducing stress and error. Further, social and personal skills or human factors, as well as other skills, are essential for functional CRM. Also, it is necessary to understand that accidents are a chain of mistakes, and as mention early, CRM lowers the risks for errors.

In a multi-crew environment, CRM is essential to prevent accidents. The reason is that communication between the two pilots, aeronautical decision making (ADM), and situational awareness help to avoid mistakes. For instance, both pilots should divide the workload, decide who is flying, and who is complying with the proper in-flight emergency (communication). Then, to deal with less stress, the pilot flying should engage the autopilot, so he/she doesn’t need to stress about maintaining altitude or a heading (ADM). Next, both pilots need to know the condition of the airplane like fuel remaining and flight path, as well as suitable runways nearby, terrain, and weather around the aircraft (situational awareness).

A good example of a lack of CRM is United Airlines Flight 173. In this accident, the crew failed to monitor fuel quantity after having an issue with the landing gear. Clearly, the pilots and the flight engineer were distracted, dealing with the unusual situation while neglecting the remaining task. However, it is important to understand that before this accident, CRM did not exist. More information about the accident in the following video:

References:

AOPA. (2019). Crm. Retrieved from https://www.aopa.org/-/media/Images/AOPA-Main/News-and-Media/Publications/Flight-Training-Magazine/1907f/1907f_ap_crm/1907f_ap_crm_16x9.jpg?h=675&w=1200&la=en&hash=4EDF84E3D13EE1C96F185FD0CE7A16EB

Neville A. Stanton, Wen-Chin Li & Don Harris (2019) Editorial: Ergonomics and Human Factors in Aviation, Ergonomics, 62:2, 131-137, DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2019.1564589

Safety Management Systems. (2016, February 16). Human factors. Retrieved from https://www.casa.gov.au/safety-management/human-factors

TACG. (n.d.). Flight Deck. Retrieved from https://www.tacgworldwide.com/portals/23/Images/pilot-sighting.jpg?ver=2016-10-12-130534-967