Thunderstorms

A thunderstorm is the weather hazard that should concern pilots the most because it represents different types of risks. For instance, near and inside a storm, you could encounter low-level wind shears, lighting, hail, icing, severe turbulence, and tornadoes. All those weather phenomena are hazardous for the aircraft and its occupants. For that reason, pilots must avoid thunderstorms at all times.

For a thunderstorm to develop, it is required three conditions moisture, unstable air, and lifting action. Storms form when warm air evaporates water (moisture) and raises (lifting action) because of its less density, disturbing the stability of the environment (unstable air).

Thunderstorms have three stages: the cumulus, mature, and the dissipating stage. Strong updrafts characterize the cumulus stage. Next, the storm takes about 15 minutes to reach the mature stage, where precipitation falls in the form of rain showers or hail, and turbulence is present around the thunderstorm. Updrafts and downdrafts are present. Finally, when liftin action slows down, and the wind changes the cell’s shape into an anvil form, the dissipating stage begins, just downdrafts are present.

References:

Federal Aviation Administration. (2016). AC-00-6B. Retrieved from: https://www.faa.gov/documentlibrary/media/advisory_circular/ac_00-6b.pdf

Federal Aviation Administration. (2016). Pilots handbook of aeronautical knowledge. Washington, D.C.

The FAA Class D airspace and the Ecuadorian (ICAO) ATZ

The control tower is in charge of the active runways and the airport’s surroundings inside the FAA Class D airspaces and the Ecuadorian (ICAO) Air Traffic Zones (ATZ). Both are controlled airspace, and two-way radio communication is required. Aircraft on the traffic pattern will be inside the Class D airspace and the ATZ. Therefore, pilots must be in contact with the tower control at all times.

The control tower of the Class D airspace is in complete charge of the traffic around the airport. That includes takeoffs and landings. Inside an ATZ in Ecuador, the control tower must have continued communication with approach control. That means the tower must ask the approach controller before giving a takeoff clearance. Additionally, Class D airspaces are designated for non-busy airports while the ATZs in Ecuador are around busy airports such as Quito and Guayaquil. Also, the VFR weather minimums between a Class D and an ATZ are different too. The weather minimums on the ATZ will vary on the airspace it is inside. 

The dimension of these airspaces is different. For instance, the FAA “Class D airspace extends upward from the surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL)” (FAA, 2020). It is essential to know that the ceiling and the dimension of this airspace (usually four nautical miles around the airport) could vary. For that reason, the pilots must refer to supplemental charts to verify the information. On the other hand, the ATZ in Ecuador differs as well. For example, Quito located at 7900ft; the ATZ extends from the surface up to 10500ft. The radius is 15 nautical miles from the center of the airport.

Sources:

Aeronautical Information Manual - AIM - Controlled Airspace. (2020, January 30). Retrieved        from             https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap3_section_2.htmlDi rection 

General de Aviation Civil - Ecuador. (n.d.). SEQM AD 2.1 INDICADOR LOCALIZACIÓN Y NOMBRE DEL AERÓDROMO. Retrieved from http://www.ais.aviacioncivil.gob.ec/ifis3/aip/AD 2   SEQM

HavKar. (n.d.). Icao airspace classification. Retrieved from   http://www.havkar.com/en/blog/view/airspace-classifications-and-the-air-traffic-            control-services/124

Air Pollution and Airport Operations

The majority of emissions produced at airports comes from airplanes. Although, according to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), “aircraft engines produce the same pollution as any other engine burning fuel” (n.d.). Also, “The ICAO databank provides a compilation of aircraft engine emission data measured at four thrust levels: 100% (takeoff), 85% (climb out),  30% (approach) and 7% (idle) of maximum thrust available for takeoff under normal operating conditions at ISA sea level static conditions” (authors, 2019). However, the problem is the time the aircraft consumes from starting the engines until takeoff. Furthermore, at busier airports, due to traffic congestion, airplanes spend more time idle. Consequently, air pollution increases at and in the vicinity of the airport. Also, it is essential to understand that this emission is not significant at higher altitudes.

A solution could be to increase airport efficiency by adding more runways and designate certain runways for takeoffs only and others for landings only. Also, add taxiways that go around runways rather than intersecting them. For instance, Atlanta Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport is designed this way. It is no doubt this configuration reduces the time spent on the ground.

Another solution could be to tax air carriers operating with older aircraft or prohibit the operation of those airplanes. On average, old planes consume 51% more fuel than new airplanes. Technology allowed engine manufacturers to produce high-bypass turbofan engines that consume less fuel and produce less noise pollution. However, this solution could bring other problems like an increase in airfares and consequently a lower demand.

References:

International Civil Aviation Organization. (n.d.). Aircraft Engine Emissions. Retrieved from https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/aircraft-engine-emissions.aspx

Rutherford, D., & Zeinali, M. (2009). Efficiency trends for new commercial jet aircraft 1960-2008.

Schlenker, W., & Walker, W. R. (2016). Airports, air pollution, and contemporaneous health. The Review of Economic Studies, 83(2 (295)), 768-809. doi:10.1093/restud/rdv043

 Visser, H., Hebly, S., & Wijnen, R. (2009). Management of the environmental impact at airport operations. New York: Nova Science Publishers.

The Air Commerce Act of 1926

During World War I, the military used airplanes to carry mail. After the war finished, there was a surplus of aircraft, and civilians used them to continue sending mail, this time in the US. However, many accidents happened, and for various reasons, some airplanes were not in the right conditions to fly, sometimes the weather was not suitable for flying but, the air carries would pressure the pilots to fly anyways.



The United States Congress passed the Air Commerce Act 94 years ago in 1926. Then, the Government will (FAA),  “designate and establish airways, establish, operate, and maintain aids to air navigation (but not airports), arrange for research and development to improve such aids, license pilots, issue airworthiness certificates for aircraft and major aircraft components, and investigate accidents.”

This event was necessary for the aviation industry since accidents were not frequent anymore, as it used to be before 1926. Further, the general public started to trust airplanes and later became a “common” public transportation method. Many air carriers took advantage of the trust and became larger airlines. Aviation would not be what it is today if this Air Commerce Act of 1926 never became law.

References:

A Brief History of the FAA. (2017, January 4). Retrieved from https://www.faa.gov/about/history/brief_history/

Air Commerce Act. (2015, December 7). Retrieved from https://www.transportation.gov/content/air-commerce-act

Glass, A. (2013, May 20). Congress passed Air Commerce Act, May 20, 1926. Retrieved from https://www.politico.com/story/2013/05/this-day-in-politics-091600